Language Learning Strategies, Compensation Strategies Used by Learners, and How It Matters

 

There is an old Chinese proverb- “Give a man a fish and he eats for a day. Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”. This proverb interprets a meaning to the language learning and teaching arena. If students do not solve their problems and they are provided with the answers, the immediate problem might be solved. But if they are taught the strategies to solve their problems for themselves that can facilitate them more and they will be empowered to manage their own learning.   

There are many factors which influence our language acquisition and skill development. The elements which affect our language learning abilities are motivation, intelligence, methods, techniques, and appropriate language strategies. Language learning strategies are the main factors that indicate how and how well- the students learn a second or foreign language independently or autonomously.

One of the earliest researchers, Rubin (1975, p.43) provided a definition of learning strategies as, “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge”.

Rigney (1978, p.23) defined it as, “operations or steps used by a learner that will facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval or use of information”.

Learning strategies are defined as “specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques – such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task – used by students to enhance their own learning” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1922, p.63).

Language learning strategies are “specific actions taken by the learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-direct, more effective and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford, 1990, p.8).

The study habits and learning expectations may become obstacles to learning a language. In fact, it is important to know that how the students apply different language strategies in solving linguistic problems. A strategic learner gradually becomes more confident. Brown (1994:96) considers “strategies investment, the learner’s own personal commitment of time, effort, and attention” which related to student achievement and proficiency. Though good language learners consistently use certain types of learning strategies, but skilled teachers should help their students develop an awareness of learning strategies and provide some instructions to students learn how to use more relevant and powerful learning strategies. 

Now the questions can be asked like what makes a strategy positive and helpful for a learner, and how they (teachers and students both) can identify which one is good and which one is bad for a learner? A strategy is useful when some facts are present- if the strategy relates well to the L2 task, if the strategy fits the particular student’s learning style preferences, if the students can employ the strategy effectively, and as well as, link it with other relevant strategies. Learning strategies can also enable students to become more independent, autonomous, and lifelong learners (Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991). 

There are two major classes of strategies- direct strategies and indirect strategies, which are subdivided into three groups. On the authority of Oxford (1990; p.17), strategies system includes: 

 

Direct Strategies -  

                                I.            Cognitive Strategies - practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, creating the structure for input and output.         

                             II.            Memory Strategies – creating mental linkage, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, employing action.

                          III.            Compensation Strategies – guessing intelligently, overcoming limitations in speaking and writing.

 

         Indirect Strategies:

                                      I.            Metacognitive Strategies – centering your learning, arranging and planning your learning, evaluating your learning.

                                   II.            Affective Strategies – lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, taking your emotional temperature.

                                III.            Social Strategies – empathizing with others.     

 

Compensation strategies refer to strategies that learners use to solve a linguistic problem using their available linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge. Oxford (1990; p.47) defines compensation strategies as, “Enable learners to use the new language for either comprehension or production despite limitations in Knowledge. Compensation strategies are intended to make up for an inadequate repertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary”.

It is really difficult to compensate when the learner does not know the exact word or the meaning of it. Oxford (1990) deals with the difficulty of whether a compensation strategy like looking for synonyms when the exact word is unknown is a learning strategy or a communication strategy. The compensation strategies are used to overcome knowledge gaps and to continue production in an L2.

Moreover, Oxford (1990: p.49) offers 10 compensation strategies for us – guessing by linguistic clues, guessing by other clues, switching to the mother language, getting help, using mime or gesture, avoiding communication partially or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the message, coining words, and using circumlocution or synonymy. It helps all levels of learners who do not know the exact expression, who fail to hear something clearly and who are faced with the situation where they are not clear about the meaning of the vocabulary. Generally, guessing is useful for listening and reading. It also helps the students to think about their knowledge and to overcome the limitation of the four language skills.

The students often avoid communication and give up or turn out two ‘strategies’ or ‘reactions’ that are not very effective for learning or maintaining communication. Teaching students positive strategies to communication on idea with limited vocabulary and grammar will improve test scores, increase conversation practice, and help students become more confident and competent in terms of communication.

However, Gardner (1985: p.18) suggests that maintaining or increasing the student motivation is one of the challenges that teachers face in improving language learning. Abdesslem (1996: p91) argues that highly motivated students become more wary of classroom that tend to focus on form instead of enabling them to interact in the target language, which means accuracy over fluency. On the other hand, students without high motivation can experience successful interaction in the target language. Thus, teaching students compensation strategies can increase motivation, improve students’ potential for success in learning, and effectively engage in meaningful communication. 

Ultimately, Oxford (1990; p.80) developed her view of compensation strategies within the framework of language learning strategies that aim to teach skills to help students become autonomous learners. As can be seen, compensation strategies are beneficial for communicative competence, the students should be made aware that the use of more than one strategy is preferable.

 

References:

1.      Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies that every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.

2.      Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical assumptions, research history and typology. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.) Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 15-30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

3.      Windle, S. (2000). From Confusing to Confucian: Towards an Understanding. The English Connection, 4(6), 1, 6-8.

4.      Taghinezhad, A., Azizi, M., Shahmohammadi, S., Kashanifar, F. S., & Azadikhah, M. (2016). Comparing the Effects of Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies on Iranian EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Learning. Comparing the Effects of Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies, 3(1), 133-144.

5.      Abdesslem, H. (1996). Communication Strategies or Discourse Strategies in Foreign Language Performance. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, Sheffield UK. 34(1), 49-62.

6.      Brown, H. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

7.      Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: the role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.

8.      Rigney, JW (1978). Learning strategies: A theoretical perspective. In H F O’Neil (Jr) (ed) 165-205.

9.      Allwright, D., 1990: AutonomyinLanguagePedagogy. CRILEWorkingPaper6. Centrefor ResearchinEducation,UniversityofLancaster,U.K.

10.  Abdul, S. M., Sahib. (Mar, 2016). Compensation Strategies Used by EFL Learners in Speaking and Listening Skills. Journal of University of Thi-Qar, 11(1).

11.  LearningStyles&Strategies/Oxford, GALA2003.

12.  K. C. (2015). Direct Language Learning Strategies in the theory by Rebecca Oxford in English vocabulary acquisition at the age group of 11-12 year olds. World Scientific News, 7, 179-206.